8.8. Configuring the Bootloader

It is probably already functional, but it is always good to know how to configure and install the bootloader in case it disappears from the Master Boot Record. This can occur after installation of another operating system, such as Windows. The following information can also help you to modify the bootloader configuration if needed.

8.8.1. Identifying the Disks

CULTURE udev, devfs and /dev/

The /dev/ directory traditionally houses so-called “special” files, intended to represent system peripherals (see sidebar BACK TO BASICS Device access permissions). /dev/hda1 thus always corresponds to the first partition of the first IDE hard drive. This static structure does not allow dynamic setting of “major” and “minor” numbers for these files, which forces kernel developers to limit their number, since a priori assignment of the identifiers prohibits adding more once these conventions are established.

To take into account the characteristics of more and more dynamic, modern computers, the kernel has, at some time, offered an implementation of /dev/ by a virtual filesystem called devfs. In some cases, this makes it easier to find files, since the naming convention uses a hierarchical structure: the first partition of the master hard drive on the first IDE bus was then represented by the file, /dev/ide/host0/bus0/target0/lun0/part1. Not only were these naming conventions not very intuitive, but they were also hard-coded into the kernel which presented problems for hot-pluggable drives because the corresponding special file name would vary.

The current solution is the second incarnation of the process, udev, with which the kernel delegates the choice of the device file names to be created to a program in user space. This program (udevd) can then have all of the flexibility of user space to decide what actions to take, naming of peripherals, etc.

With udev (user-space /dev/), a filesystem is stored in RAM and generated automatically by udevd (and it hides the content of any /dev/ that may be stored on-disk). udevd collaborates with the kernel's hotplug sub-system (see Section 9.11, “Hot Plugging: hotplug”) to detect the appearance (hotplugging) of devices, then dynamically creates the corresponding special files in /dev/. The content of /dev/ is, thus, lost on each reboot, but udev recreates it systematically.

This mechanism allows the machine to dynamically choose the file name. You can thus keep the same name for a given device, regardless of the connector used or the connection order, which is especially useful when you use various USB peripherals. The partition system on the first IDE hard drive can then be called /dev/hda1 for backwards compatibility, or /dev/root-partition if you prefer, or even both at the same time since udevd can be configured to automatically create a symbolic link. Furthermore, /dev/ no longer contains useful files at this time. Previously, some kernel modules did not automatically load when you tried to access the corresponding peripheral; henceforth, the peripheral's special file no longer exists prior to loading the module, which is no big deal, since most modules are loaded on boot thanks to automatic hardware detection. But for undetectable peripherals (such as older disk drives or PS/2 mice), this doesn't work. Consider adding the modules, floppy, psmouse and mousedev to /etc/modules in order to force loading them on boot.

Configuration of the bootloader must identify the different hard drives and their partitions. Linux uses a special filesystem (in “block” mode) stored in the /dev/ directory, for this purpose. Historically, /dev/hda was the master disk on the first IDE controller, and /dev/hdb its first slave, /dev/hdc and /dev/hdd being, respectively, the master and slave disks on the second IDE controller, and so on down for any others. /dev/sda corresponded to the first SCSI drive, /dev/sdb being the second, etc. This naming scheme has been unified with the Linux kernel present in Squeeze, and all hard drives (IDE/PATA, SATA, SCSI, USB, IEEE 1394) are now represented by /dev/sd*.

Each partition is represented by its number on the disk on which it resides: for instance, /dev/sda1 is the first partition on the first disk, and /dev/sdb3 is the third partition on the second disk.

The PC architecture (or “i386”) is limited to four “primary” partitions per disk. To go beyond this limitation, one of them must be created as an “extended” partition, and it can then contain additional “secondary” partitions. These secondary partitions must be numbered from 5. Thus the first secondary partition could be /dev/sda5, followed by /dev/sda6, etc.

It is not always easy to remember what disk is connected to which SATA controller, or in third position in the SCSI chain, especially since the naming of hotplugged hard drives (which includes among others most SATA disks and external disks) can change from one boot to another. Fortunately, udev creates, in addition to /dev/sd*, symbolic links with a fixed name, which you could then use if you wished to identify a hard drive in a non-ambiguous manner. These symbolic links are stored in /dev/disk/by-id. On a machine with two physical disks, for example, one could find the following:

mirexpress:/dev/disk/by-id# ls -l
total 0
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root  9 23 jul. 08:58 ata-STM3500418AS_9VM3L3KP -> ../../sda
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root 10 23 jul. 08:58 ata-STM3500418AS_9VM3L3KP-part1 -> ../../sda1
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root 10 23 jul. 08:58 ata-STM3500418AS_9VM3L3KP-part2 -> ../../sda2
[...]
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root  9 23 jul. 08:58 ata-WDC_WD5001AALS-00L3B2_WD-WCAT00241697 -> ../../sdb
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root 10 23 jul. 08:58 ata-WDC_WD5001AALS-00L3B2_WD-WCAT00241697-part1 -> ../../sdb1
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root 10 23 jul. 08:58 ata-WDC_WD5001AALS-00L3B2_WD-WCAT00241697-part2 -> ../../sdb2
[...]
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root  9 23 jul. 08:58 scsi-SATA_STM3500418AS_9VM3L3KP -> ../../sda
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root 10 23 jul. 08:58 scsi-SATA_STM3500418AS_9VM3L3KP-part1 -> ../../sda1
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root 10 23 jul. 08:58 scsi-SATA_STM3500418AS_9VM3L3KP-part2 -> ../../sda2
[...]
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root  9 23 jul. 08:58 scsi-SATA_WDC_WD5001AALS-_WD-WCAT00241697 -> ../../sdb
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root 10 23 jul. 08:58 scsi-SATA_WDC_WD5001AALS-_WD-WCAT00241697-part1 -> ../../sdb1
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root 10 23 jul. 08:58 scsi-SATA_WDC_WD5001AALS-_WD-WCAT00241697-part2 -> ../../sdb2
[...]
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root  9 23 jul. 16:48 usb-LaCie_iamaKey_3ed00e26ccc11a-0:0 -> ../../sdc
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root 10 23 jul. 16:48 usb-LaCie_iamaKey_3ed00e26ccc11a-0:0-part1 -> ../../sdc1
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root 10 23 jul. 16:48 usb-LaCie_iamaKey_3ed00e26ccc11a-0:0-part2 -> ../../sdc2
[...]
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root  9 23 jul. 08:58 wwn-0x5000c50015c4842f -> ../../sda
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root 10 23 jul. 08:58 wwn-0x5000c50015c4842f-part1 -> ../../sda1
[...]
mirexpress:/dev/disk/by-id#

Note that some disks are listed several times (because they behave simultaneously as ATA disks and SCSI disks), but the relevant information is mainly in the model and serial numbers of the disks, from which you can find the peripheral file.

The example configuration files given in the following sections are based on the same setup: a single master IDE disk, where the first partition is an old Windows installation and the second contains Debian GNU/Linux.

8.8.2. Configuring LILO

LILO (LInux LOader) is the oldest bootloader — solid but rustic. It writes the physical address of the kernel to boot on the MBR, which is why each update to LILO (or its configuration file) must be followed by the command lilo. Forgetting to do so will render a system unable to boot if the old kernel was removed or replaced as the new one will not be in the same location on the disk.

LILO's configuration file is /etc/lilo.conf; a simple file for standard configuration is illustrated in the example below.

Example 8.3. LILO configuration file

# The disk on which LILO should be installed.
# By indicating the disk and not a partition.
# you order LILO to be installed on the MBR.
boot=/dev/sda
# the partition that contains Debian
root=/dev/sda2
# the item to be loaded by default
default=Linux

# the most recent kernel image
image=/vmlinuz
  label=Linux
  initrd=/initrd.img
  read-only

# Old kernel (if the newly installed kernel doesn't boot)
image=/vmlinuz.old
  label=LinuxOLD
  initrd=/initrd.img.old
  read-only
  optional

# only for Linux/Windows dual boot
other=/dev/sda1
  label=Windows

8.8.3. GRUB 2 Configuration

GRUB (GRand Unified Bootloader) is more recent. It is not necessary to invoke it after each update of the kernel; GRUB knows how to read the filesystems and find the position of the kernel on the disk by itself. To install it on the MBR of the first disk, simply type grub-install /dev/sda.

NOTE Disk names for GRUB

GRUB can only identify hard drives based on information provided by the BIOS. (hd0) corresponds to the first disk thus detected, (hd1) the second, etc. In most cases, this order corresponds exactly to the usual order of disks under Linux, but problems can occur when you associate SCSI and IDE disks. GRUB stores correspondences that it detects in the file /boot/grub/device.map. If you find errors there (because you know that your BIOS detects drives in a different order), correct them manually and run grub-install again.

Partitions also have a specific name in GRUB. When you use “classical” partitions in MS-DOS format, the first partition on the first disk is labeled, (hd0,msdos1), the second (hd0,msdos2), etc.

GRUB 2 configuration is stored in /boot/grub/grub.cfg, but this file (in Debian) is generated from others. Be careful not to modify it by hand, since such local modifications will be lost the next time update-grub is run (which may occur upon update of various packages). The most common modifications of the /boot/grub/grub.cfg file (to add command line parameters to the kernel or change the duration that the menu is displayed, for example) are made through the variables in /etc/default/grub. To add entries to the menu, you can either create a /boot/grub/custom.cfg file or modify the /etc/grub.d/50_custom file. For more complex configurations, you can modify other files in /etc/grub.d, or add to them; these scripts should return configuration snippets, possibly by making use of external programs. These scripts are the ones that will update the list of kernels to boot: 10_linux takes into consideration the installed Linux kernels; 20_linux takes into account Xen virtual systems, and 30_os-prober lists other operating systems (Windows, Mac OSX, Hurd).

8.8.4. GRUB Legacy Configuration

Version 1 of GRUB can also read filesystems. It is installed using the grub-install /dev/sda command.

GRUB's configuration is in the /boot/grub/menu.lst file (see example).

Example 8.4. GRUB configuration file

# Boot automatically after 30 seconds
timeout 30
# Boot first entry by default
default 0
# If that fails, try the second
fallback 1

# Last kernel installed
title GNU/Linux
root (hd0,1)
kernel /vmlinuz root=/dev/sda2
initrd /initrd.img

# Old kernel (if the most recent doesn't boot)
title GNU/Linux OLD
root (hd0,1)
kernel /vmlinuz.old root=/dev/sda2
initrd /initrd.img.old

# Only for dual boot, Linux/Windows
title Microsoft Windows
rootnoverify (hd0,0)
makeactive
chainloader +1

8.8.5. For Macintosh Computers (PowerPC): Configuring Yaboot

Yaboot is the bootloader used by old Macintosh computers using PowerPC processors. They do not boot like PCs, but rely on a “bootstrap” partition, from which the BIOS (or OpenFirmware) executes the loader, and on which the ybin program installs yaboot and its configuration file. You will only need to run this command again if the /etc/yaboot.conf is modified (it is duplicated on the bootstrap partition, and yaboot knows how to find the position of the kernels on the disks).

Before executing ybin, you must first have a valid /etc/yaboot.conf. The following is an example of a minimal configuration.

Example 8.5. Yaboot configuration file

# bootstrap partition
boot=/dev/sda2
# the disk
device=hd:
# the Linux partition
partition=3
root=/dev/sda3
# boot after 3 seconds of inactivity
# (timeout is in tenths of seconds)
timeout=30

install=/usr/lib/yaboot/yaboot
magicboot=/usr/lib/yaboot/ofboot
enablecdboot

# last kernel installed
image=/vmlinux
        label=linux
        initrd=/initrd.img
        read-only

# old kernel
image=/vmlinux.old
        label=old
        initrd=/initrd.img.old
        read-only

# only for Linux/Mac OSX dual-boot
macosx=/dev/sda5

# bsd=/dev/sdaX and macos=/dev/sdaX
# are also possible